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2006:4 The Phenomenon of Childlessness in a Sociological and Demographic Perspective |
Hana Hašková (ed.), Petra Šalamounová, Hana Víznerová, Lenka Zamykalová |
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The study examines the phenomenon of voluntary and involuntary childlessness, focusing in particular on its occurrence in Czech society. The aim of the study is to analyse childlessness (the current increase in the number of people who remain childless, the decline in fertility, and the postponement of childbearing) in Czech society in the context of a) how these phenomena are reflected professionally and in the Czech media, b) international demographic data on childlessness, and c) how these phenomena and childbearing are reflected by civic and lobbyist groups active on the issue of childlessness. The first chapter (introduction) points out the diversity of childlessness and of how it is studied and how it is perceived in society. The second chapter presents a) a summary of basic demographic data on childlessness in the Czech Republic, b) an analysis of professional discussions on the current increase in the number of childless people, the fertility decline and the postponement of childbearing in the Czech Republic (and in other Central and Eastern European countries), and c) the categorisation of theories used in research on these phenomena. It also outlines the gaps in research on childlessness in the Czech Republic and describes the conceptual model the authors of the study use in their research on childlessness. The third chapter contains a demographic analysis that compares, transversally and by generations, the basic characteristics of fertility and nuptiality in European countries. The demographic analysis concludes with a comparison of the percentage of women who remain childless in different European countries and the prognosis for future trends relating to childlessness in Europe. The fourth chapter presents a sociological analysis of a worldwide online discussion among voluntarily childless people, and it addresses two basic questions: How do voluntarily childless people view the majority of adults who are either parents or want to become parents in the future? And what types of ‘childfree’ people can be identified? The fifth chapter analyses and compares the image of biological childlessness and the image of low fertility presented in the Czech public media between 1994 and 2004, i.e. the years when total fertility rates in the country were lowest. The study ends with a summary of the main findings of the previous chapters.
Keywords
childlessness, postponement of childbearing, fertility decline, voluntary childlessness, involuntary childlessness, Central and Eastern Europe
Summary
This volume of Sociological Studies introduces readers to the research project ‘The Phenomenon of Childlessness in the Context of Social Changes in Czech Society’. The aim of the research is to examine voluntary and involuntary childlessness. In this volume of Sociological Studies a broader theoretical framework for the study of childlessness, fertility decline, and the postponement of childbearing in Czech society is established.
In the introduction, Hana Hašková describes various forms of childlessness – for example, voluntary, involuntary, temporary, or completed (lifetime) childlessness, infertility, sterility, or childlessness based on cultural or social reasons. She also looks at the study of childlessness from the perspective of different scientific fields and argues that the direct or indirect effects on society of scientific reflections obtained in this kind of research are important. The diversity of childlessness, the study of childlessness, and its reflection in society are thus discussed. The author then introduces the individual chapters contained in this volume of Sociological Studies.
In the second chapter Hana Hašková maps out the basic demographic data on childlessness in Czech society and analyses the professional discourse surrounding the current rise in childlessness, the decline in fertility, and the postponement of childbearing in the Czech Republic and other Central and Eastern European states. She presents the basic theories and the methodological gaps in research on childlessness in Czech society and then highlights the path of possible further theoretical and methodological development in this field. The author identifies several basic dimensions to the professional discourse on the current rise in childlessness, decline in fertility, and postponement of childbearing in the Czech Republic and other states in the former Eastern block: the dimension of cultural and structural factors that affect these socio-demographic changes, the dimension of the positive and negative effects of the socio-economic and political transformations in the region under observation, the dimension of the similarities and differences in the values of relevant socio-demographic indicators in Europe, the dimension of the assessment of changes in reproductive behaviour as a crisis or transition, the dimension of individualism and collectivism in the framework of ‘solving’ the current changes in reproductive behaviour, and the dimension of change and stability in the scientific discourses on changes in reproductive behaviour. In the theoretical background to the professional discourse on the current rise in childlessness, fertility decline, and postponement of childbearing in Central and Eastern European countries the author identifies in particular the theory of individualization and cultural change, rational choice theory, and the theory of social anomy. She goes on to argue in favour of including other theoretical approaches in the research on the contemporary changes in reproductive behaviour in the region under observation, in particular the theory of social networks and the theory of gender equity. The methodological gaps in the research to date on childlessness in Czech society indicate mainly the inadequate use of qualitative and quantitative research approaches in combination, the existence of a division between retrospective studies and studies on future developments, and partially also the gender and generational blindness of the studies. There is also a brief illustration of the main research questions, the methodology, and the conceptual model used in the project ‘The Phenomenon of Childlessness in the Context of Social Changes in Czech Society’, the example of study that has attempted to fill in all the above-mentioned research gaps.
In the third chapter Petra Šalamounová places the research on childlessness and the related socio-demographic phenomena in Czech society in the context of how the values of various relevant demographic indicators of fertility and nuptiality have evolved over time in individual European countries, examined from a transversal and generational perspective. She makes a transversal comparison between European countries of a) the basic characteristics of first-time mothers, b) the fertility rate of first births, c) the structure of children born by birth order, and d) the total fertility rate. From a generational perspective she then compares a) the proportion of unmarried women and b) the completed fertility of women born in 1965. The author chose to combine the transversal and generational perspectives because while the first records the most recent trends in fertility it is not very useful in times of important demographic changes, and the second can be used in the given context only for generations that have completed reproduction. The analysis concludes with a comparison of the proportion of childless women in European countries and with a forecast of how the percentage of childless women in Europe will develop in the future. Special attention is given to identifying the position of the values of the relevant socio-demographic indicators in the Czech Republic in the context of Europe.
With regard to the age of the mother at the time of first birth the author observes that in 2000 there were substantial differences between the former Eastern block countries and other European countries. Specific to the Czech Republic and other Central and Eastern European countries are not only the relatively low transversal values of the first-birth fertility rate at an older age, which could be explained by the postponement of childbirth, but also the relatively high fertility rate among women at a young age. It is clear then that even though substantial changes occurred in the reproductive behaviour in the ‘East’ as it began to be more like the reproductive behaviour in the ‘West’, the reproductive behaviour of women in former Eastern block states still currently differs from that of other European women. On the other hand, no sharp dividing line between the ‘East’ and the ‘West’ could be made with regard to the structure of children born by birth order. In this regard the states of Europe are becoming increasingly similar. According to selected demographic prognoses, in all European countries there will likewise be an increase in the percentage of lifetime childless women, most notably among the youngest generations of women studied to date (born in 1970 and 1975). However, prognoses indicate that lifetime childlessness among these women in the Czech Republic should still be at the lower end of the European average.
In the next chapter Hana Víznerová examines the views of a specific group (one usually difficult to access as a sufficiently large group) who have elected to remain childless in life. Her analysis looks at an internet discussion among people who have made the decision to remain childless and who in this virtual community primarily seek understanding from other people who have made a similar life decision. In the analysis the author identifies the topics that the participants – so-called ‘childfree’ people – raise and pursue in the discussion. The main thematic reference she observes is to selfishness and irresponsibility, not just on the part of voluntarily childless people (which is the view of the majority population in Euro-American society), but on the part of parents or people planning to have children. Another important topic is the intolerance expressed by parents and people planning to have children towards ‘childfree’ people. However, the author also uncovers intolerance on the part of ‘childfree’ people towards people who are parents. The analysis of other dominant topics in the internet discussion (gender relations, partnership and parenthood) exposes the norms and values of contemporary Euro-American society from the viewpoint of a marginalised group. The author concludes the chapter by presenting a typology of the ‘childfree’ people who contribute to the discussion, categorised by the reasons why they are childless, their views on children, and their views on the majority society.
In the final chapter Lenka Zamykalová first presents an analysis of the images of biological childlessness and of the low fertility and birth rates that are portrayed in the Czech media. She finds that the references in each of these two discourses to the other are limited. ‘Biological’ childlessness is described as a condition warranting pity and medical attention. It is only perceived as a social and political problem to the extent that it refers to the issue about paying for treatment from public health insurance. Conversely, the decline in fertility is defined as a serious social and political problem, and described in terms of blame, morality, and value hierarchies. Both discourses are conducted in the language of expertise – medical in the first and social-scientific in the second. And both debates are ‘feminised’, not (just) in the sense that there are more female than male authors in the debate, but (also) in the sense of how society defines childlessness as a woman’s problem.
In this volume of Sociological Studies research on childlessness, fertility decline, and the postponement of childbearing to a later age in the Czech Republic is framed in terms of its professional reflection and media image and is placed in the context of relevant international demographic data and in the context of the view in this area of active civic and lobbyist groups.
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2009:6 The Principles of Partnership and Participation as Applied in Small Towns in the Czech Republic |
2009:5 Social Capital in the Czech Republic and in an International Comparison |
2009:4 The Gender Segregation of the Czech Labour Market. A Quantitative and Qualitative Image |
2009:3 Problem Neighbourhoods in Cities and the Regeneration Policies That Target Them – A Case Study of Prague |
2009:2 Czech Religiosity at the Start of the Third Millennium. Results of the ISSP 2008 – Religion |
2009:1 The First Elections to the Senate. An Analysis of the 1996 Elections to the Senate of the Parliament of the Czech Republic |
2008:5 The Perception and Construction of Social Distance in Czech Society |
2008:4 Social Distances and Stratification: Social Space in the Czech Republic |
2008:3 Evolution and Determination of Educational Inequalities in the Czech Republic between 1955 and 2002 in the European Context |
2008:2 Actors of Local Development - Orlicko |
2008:1 The Political Awareness of Citizens: Theories, Measurements and the Role of Political Awareness in the Study of Political Attitudes |
2007:11 A Permanent or Temporary Change? The Arrangement of Gender Roles in Families with Fathers Participating in Childcare |
2007:10 Participation and Partnership in Local Public Administration |
2007:9 Family Friendly Working Conditions in an International Comparison |
2007:8 The Political Impact of Suburbanisation |
2007:7 Fathers, Mothers and Caring for Children after Divorce |
2007:6 The Foreign Migration of Scientists and Researchers and the Tools for Influencing Migration |
2007:5 The Representation of Different Forms of Family and Working Life in Women’s and Men’s Magazines |
2007:4 Czech Labour Market: Changing Structures and Work Orientations |
2007:3 The Relationship between Changes in the Labour Market and Private, Family and Partnership Life |
2007:2 The Institutional Background of Czech Sociology before the Onset of Marxism |
2007:1 Educational Aspirations in a Comparative Perspective. The role of individual, contextual and structural factors in the formation of educational aspirations in OECD countries |
2006:14 Work and Family Roles and How They Are Combined in the Lives of Czech Parents: Plans versus Reality |
2006:13 The Representation of Parenthood and Childlessness in Selected Women’s and Men’s Magazines |
2006:12 Social Solidarity from the Perspective of the Czech Public |
2006:11 Science as a public matter: science policies and the media |
2006:10 The Issue of Minorities in the Czech Republic: Community Life and the Representation of Collective Interests (Slovaks, Ukrainians, Vietnamese, and Roma) |
2006:9 Social Standing and Lifestyle in Czech Society |
2006:8 The Image of Science in Czech Public Opinion |
2006:7 Social Capital. Concepts, Theories, and Methods of Measurement |
2006:6 Basic Features of the Membership Base of KDU-ČSL |
2006:5 Non-Marital Fertility in the Czech Republic after 1989: The Social and Economic Context |
2006:4 The Phenomenon of Childlessness in a Sociological and Demographic Perspective |
2006:3 Participation, Democracy and Citizenship in a European Context |
2006:2 Autonomy and Cooperation: Effect of the Municipal System Established in 1990 |
2006:1 Socio-economic Values, Policies, and Institutions in the Period of the Czech Republic’s Accession to the European Union |
2005:06 Civil Society in the Regions of the Czech Republic |
2005:05 Civil Society and Civic Participation in the Czech Republic |
2005:04 Work/Life Balance in the Czech Republic: Policy, Time, Money, and Individual, Family, and Company Practices |
2005:03 Regional Elites 2004 |
2005:02 Political Behavior in Metropolitan Areas in the Czech Republic between 1990 and 2002 – Patterns, Trends and the Relation to Suburbanization and Its Socio-Spatial Patterns |
2005:01 Measuring Value Orientations with the Use of S.H. Schwartz’s Value Portraits |
2004:11 The Formation of Group Mentalities in the Czech Republic after 1989 |
2004:10 Hierarchy as the Strength and the Weakness of Communist Rule. The Legacy of Communist Rule IV: A Volume of Papers from the Seminar Held in Prague on September 11-12, 2003 |
2004:9 Czech National Identity after the Break Up Czechoslovakia and before Accession to the European Union |
2004:8 Life Strategies of Businesswomen and Businessmen at the Turn of the Millennium |
2004:7 Attitudes towards Marriage, Parenthood and Family Roles in the Czech Republic and in Europe |
2004:6 Life Satisfaction: Family,Work, and Other Factors |
2004:5 What Faith? Contemporary Czech Religiosity/Spirituality in the Perspective of Qualitative Sociology of Religion |
2004:4 Structural Tensions in the Interface between the Labour Market and Social Policy in the Czech Republic |
2004:3 Metropolitan Areas in the Czech Republic – Definitions, Basic Characteristics, Patterns of Suburbanisation and Their Impact on Political Behaviour |
2004:2 International Violence Against Women Survey – Czech Republic/2003: Sociological Research on Domestic Violence |
2004:1 Elections to the European Parliament in 2004 – An Analysis of Electoral Participation and Party Support in the Czech Republic |
2003:12 Hierarchy as a Strength and Weakness of Communist Rule |
2003:11 How the Czech Public Views the Elites the Political and Economic Elites |
2003:10 The Reconstruction of Communist Rule at the End of the 1980s |
2003:9 Women’s Civic and Political Participation in the Czech Republic and the Role of European Union Gender Equality and Accession Policies |
2003:8 Pre-election polls, election results, and validity of measurement before the 2002 elections |
2003:7 Party Preference Surveys, Their Application in Society and the Issue of Quality |
2003:6 The Transformations of Czech Socio-economic Values at the Turn of the Century |
2003:5 Objective and Subjective Assessments of the Financial Accessibility of Housing in the Czech Republic during the 1990s |
2003:4 Entry into Marriage and Unmarried Cohabitation in the Czech Republic since 1989 in Connection with Education |
2003:3 Work and Job Values in CEE and EU countries |
2003:2 Intergenerational Biographic Configurations of the Inhabitants of the NISA Euroregion |
2003:1 Structurally Generated Growth of Inequality |
2002:13 Public Opinion Surveys – Theoretical Aspects and Practical Application |
2002:12 Group Mentalities |
2002:11 The World of Hierarchies and Real Socialism. The legacy of communist rule II: volume of contributions investigating of social hierarchies |
2002:10 Social Context of the Lives of Women Working in Management Positions |
2002:09 Parties in the Parliament. Why, When and How do Parties act in Unity? |
2002:08 Life strategies of women managers: case study |
2002:07 Region and Politics |
2002:06 The World of Hierarchies and Really Existing Socialism |
2002:05 Housing Careers in the Czech Republic 1960 - 2001 |
2002:04 Re-emigrants and Socially Shared Values |
2002:03 Satisfaction with Housing among the Czech Population |
2002:02 The Family Origin on the Evolution of Educational Inequalities in the Czech Republic after 1989 |
2002:01 The Rise and Evolution of the New Elites in the Czech Republic (from the end of the 1980´s to the spring of 2002) |
2001:12 Who´s afraid of Hierarchies? The Legacy of the Communist Government |
2001:11 11th September. International On-line Communication Research |
2001:10 Fertility and Family Differentiation in Europe |
2001:09 The rise or decline of political regionalism? Changes of voting patterns in period 1992 to 1998 - the comparison of the Czech Republic and Slovakia |
2001:08 Cross-cutting Cleavages in the Czech Republic. A Comparison of the National Level with a Specific Regional Example |
2001:07 Roma Issues: An Obstacle to Entry of the Czech Republic into the European Union? |
2001:06 ISSP- The Environment |
2001:05 Distribution of Earnings and Income in Transitional Czech Republic |
2001:04 The Bearers of Development of the Cross-Border Community on Czech-German Border |
2001:03 Rent Subsidies in the Czech Republic: A Comparison of Selected Models |
2001:02 The Role Of Political, Social and Cultural Capital in Secondary School Selection in Socialist Czechoslovakia, 1948-1989 |
2001:01 Income maintenance policies, houshold characteristics and work incentives in the Czech republic |
2000:07 Work and Family Experience of Young Female Doctors |
2000:06 Development of the Czech Social Structure in the Years 1988-1999 |
2000:05 Party identifikation in the Czech republic |
2000:04 What makes inequalities legitimate? An International Comparison |
2000:03 Religion and Supernature in Society |
2000:02 Transformation and Modernization of Society on Examples of Selected Institutions |
2000:01 The Housing Policy Changes and Housing Expenditures in the Czech Republic |
1999:11 Geografic Analysis of the Czech Republic Borderland. |
1999:10 Rise and Decline of Right-Wing Extremism in the Czech Republic in the 1990s. |
1999:09 Perceived and fair inequalities: development in the nineties and further coherences |
1999:08 The Czechoslovak citizens' attitudes towards democracy in 1968 |
1999:07 The Czech Middletown Citizens |
1999:06 A Man in a Family – Democratisation of Private Sphere |
1999:05 Development of the Policy of Equal Opportunities of Men and Women in the Czech Republic within the European Integration Context |
1999:04 Actors of Over-frontier Community Development in the Czech - German Borderland |
1999:03 Acquaintances of Local Political Leaders |
1999:02 Housing Market, its Regional Differences and Relations to Social Structure |
1999:01 The Fluctuation of Public Opinion between Years 1990 and 1998 |
1998:06 Modernizační kontext transformace, strukturní a institucionální aspekty |
1998:05 Deputies of the First Czech Parliament (1992-1996) |
1998:04 |
1998:03 Transformation of Czech Family |
1998:02 Results of a Czech-Slovak Comparison: Actors of Social Transformation and Modernisation. Attitudes of Individuals an Institutions to Social Transformation |
1998:01 Trh s bydlením a jeho sociální souvislosti - situace v Praze a Brně |
1997:08 The Family and Change of Gender Roles |
1997:07 The territorial dimension of public administration reforms in East Central Europe |
1997:06 Czech Women in the Labor Market Work and Family in a Transition Economy |
1997:05 |
1997:04 Mass Privatization, Distributive Politics, and Popular Support for Reform in the Czech Republic |
1997:03 |
1997:02 |
1997:01 Political, Organizational and Policy Transformation at the Municipal Level: The Case of Liberec |
1996:12 Osidlování českého pohraničí od května 1945 |
1996:11 Individuální kontakty obyvatel na česko-německé hranici |
1996:10 Socio-Economic Changes in the Czech Republic with an Appendix concerning the 1996 Elections´ Results |
1996:09 Národní identita |
1996:08 Politics, Skills and Industrial Restructuring. Introductory Findings on Local Institutions of Human Resources Development in Czech Machinery Indrustry |
1996:07 Subjective Mobility and Perception of Life Chances in Eastern Europe. Empirical evidence against a Marxist view of relationships between subjective and objective mobility |
1996:06 Zpráva o vývoji sociální struktury české a slovenské společnosti 1945-1993 |
1996:05 Tripartita jako model prostředkování zájmů v politickém systému České republiky |
1996:04 Národnostní a etnické vztahy v českém pohraničí - obraz Čecha, Němce, Rakušana a Roma ve vědomí obyvatel |
1996:03 The Making of Post-Communist Elites in Eastern Europe. A comparison of political and economic elites in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland |
1996:02 Sudetoněmecká otázka v názorech a postojích obyvatel českého pohraničí |
1996:01 Demografické chování obyvatelstva České republiky během přeměny společnosti po roce 1989 |
1995:08 Česká republika v roce 1994. Politická ročenka |
1995:07 Problém normativity a policejní represe v předlistopadovém Československu |
1995:06 Industriální vztahy a sociálně politické orientace českých dělníků a manažerů |
1995:05 Rozdíly v chování regionálních populací a jejich příčiny |
1995:04 Women, Work and Society |
1995:03 Trh práce a jeho potenciál |
1995:02 Etnické a národnostní vztahy v pánevní oblasti severních Čech (s důrazem na romskou problematiku) |
1995:01 In Search of Explanations for Recent Left-Turns in Post-Communist Coutries |
1994:09 Česká republika v roce 1993. Politická ročenka |
1994:08 Large-Scale Privatization: Social Conflict and Consensus |
1994:07 Economic Inequalities Old and New: The Czech Case |
1994:06 Prostředky kauzálního modelování v sociologii. Shrnující pojednání o postupech a přehled základních pojmů |
1994:05 Regionální diferenciace sociálních problémů v České republice |
1994:04 A Historical Comparison of Social Structures in the Czech Republic in 1984 and 1993 |
1994:03 Přeshraniční souvislosti sociálních změn v oblasti české části euroregionu Chebsko |
1994:02 Social and Political Transformation in the Czech Republic |
1994:01 Lotus Organizátor. Uživatelská příručka |
1993:09 Sociální a mzdové problémy zaměstnanců malých a středních soukromých podniků |
1993:08 Sociální postavení rodiny jako základního činitele a adresáta sociální pomoci |
1993:07 Changing Conditions - Changing Values? Changes in the position and perception of education during the post-communist transformation: the case of the Czech Republic |
1993:06 Perceptions of Justice. Principles of Distributive Justice in Comparative Perspective |
1993:04 Revolution for Whom? Analysis of selected patterns of intragenerational mobility in the Czech Republic |
1993:04 Revolution for Whom? Analysis of selected patterns of intragenerational mobility in the Czech Republic |
1993:03 RODINA ´89. Determinanty ekonomického úspěchu v první fázi postkomunistické transformace. Česká republika 1989-1992 |
1993:02 RODINA '89. Determinanty ekonomického úspěchu v první fázi post-komunistické transformace. Česká republika 1989-1992 |
1993:01 Microsoft Word verze 5.5. Uživatelská příručka |
1992:09 Historical Comparison of Social Stratification Types in Czechoslovakia 1967-1991 |
1992:08 Rodina '89. Úloha mentálních schopností a sociálního původu ve formování vzdělanostních aspirací |
1992:07 The Zero Generation of Small Business Owners in Czechoslovakia |
1992:06 Time Use of Small Business Owners. Results and Methodological Comments |
1992:05 Perception of Changing Inequality in Czechoslovakia |
1992:04 Vybrané kapitoly z uživatelské příručky Microsoft Word verze 5.0 |
1992:03 Politické strany a hnutí v Československu |
1992:02 Politische Partien und Bewegungen in der Tschechoslowakei |
Prague in the New Central Europe. International conference 2-4 June 1990 |
1991:09 Vybrané kapitoly z uživatelské příručky Microsoft Word verze 5.0 |
1991:08 Nultá podnikatelská generace |
1991:07 Rodina '89. Zdroje vzdělanostních nerovností |
1991:06 Hodnotové orientace československé mužské mládeže a jejich vztah k obraně vlasti |
1991:05 Gender and the Employment of Higher Education Graduates in Czechoslovakia |
1991:04 Územní vztahy, územní a státoprávní uspořádání České republiky v názorech obyvatel |
1991:03 Social Problems of Participation in the Changing Czechoslovak Economy |
1991:02 K postavení žen v československé společnosti |
1991:01 Socialist Czechoslovakia - System Error and Premises for Change |
1990:06 Názory na rozvoj soukromého podnikání |
1990:05 Growing interest in informal work - consequences for time use research. XIIth World Congress of Sociology, Madrid 1990, Thematic Group 1, Time Use Research |
1990:04 Value-satisfaction Model and the Value of Innovation |
1990:03 Who Gains and Who Loses in a Socialist Redistribution |
1990:02 Ženy a volby '90 |
1990:01 Beyond Educational Inequality in Czechoslovakia |
1989:02 Československá varianta Mezinárodní standardní klasifikace zaměstnání (ISCO) |
1989:01 Family Effect on Educational Attainment in Czechoslovakia, Hungary and the Netherlands |
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