Quality of supplementary LED lighting effects on growth and photosynthesis of two different Lactuca recombinant inbred lines (RILs) grown in a tropical greenhouse

T. W. Choong, J. He, L. Qin, S. K. Lee

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1278-1286 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0828-2

LED lamps with various combinations of red (R) and blue (B) wavelengths were used to supplement sunlight for the growth of a heat-resistant (HR) and heat-sensitive (HS) recombinant inbred lines (RIL) of lettuce. The RB-LED ratios were 100R:0B (0B), 92R:8B (8B), 84R:16B (16B), and 76R:24B (24B) with an equal PPFD of 100 μmol m^-2 s^-1. The greatest leaf expansion rates were observed at 8B for both genotypes. All HR-RILs had similar values of growth parameters and specific leaf area (SLA). However, higher values of growth parameters were observed in HS-RIL with 0B, 8B, and 16B than that under 24B and sunlight. Furthermore, HS-RIL...

Reduction of photosynthetic apparatus plays a key role in survival of the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis (Chlorophyceae) at freezing temperatures

K. Chekanov, S. Vasilieva, A. Solovchenko, E. Lobakova

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1268-1277 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0841-5

The microalga Haematococcus pluvialis is a biotechnologically important microorganism producing a ketocarotenoid astaxanthin. Haematococcus exists either as metabolically active vegetative cells with a high chlorophyll content or astaxanthin-rich haematocysts (aplanospores). This microalga featuring outstanding tolerance to a wide range of adverse conditions is a highly suitable model for studies of freezing tolerance in phototrophs. The retention of H. pluvialis cell viability after freezing-thawing is ascribed to elevated antioxidant enzyme activity and high ketocarotenoid content. However, we report that only haematocysts characterized...

Chilling-induced reduction of photosynthesis is mitigated by exposure to elevated CO₂ concentrations

C. Arena, L. Vitale

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1259-1267 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0843-3

This work aimed to evaluate if chilling stress may be mitigated by elevated CO₂ (EC) in Beta vulgaris L. plants. Photosynthetic rate was measured at 21% and 2% O₂ after a short-term exposure of 5 h at four different treatments: 360 μmol(CO₂) mol^-1/25°C (AC); 360 μmol(CO₂) mol^-1/4°C (AC+LT); 700 μmol(CO₂) mol^-1/25°C (EC); 700 μmol(CO₂) mol-1/4°C (EC+LT). Compared to AC+LT, EC+LT plants showed higher values of CO₂ fixation, photochemical activity, and Rubisco amount. These latter invest a higher portion of photosynthetic electron...

Zinc accumulation, photosynthetic gas exchange, and chlorophyll a fluorescence in Zn-stressed Miscanthus × giganteus plants

G. Andrejić, G. Gajić, M. Prica, Ž. Dželetović, T. Rakić

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1249-1258 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0827-3

Accumulation and distribution of zinc within Miscanthus × giganteus plants grown on elevated Zn concentrations and their photosynthetic performance were investigated. High concentrations of Zn in soils caused an increase of its concentrations in all plant organs. The bioconcentration factor, bioaccumulation factor, and translocation factor were lower than one indicating that M. × giganteus is an excluder plant species. Excessive Zn induced visible leaf damage, i.e. chlorosis and necrosis, only in the oldest leaves, pointing to Zn accumulation. Elevated amounts of Zn in leaves significantly lowered the photosynthetic...

Hydrogen peroxide in regulation of plant metabolism: Signalling and its effect under abiotic stressReview

T.A. Khan, M. Yusuf, Q. Fariduddin

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1237-1248 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0830-8

In plants, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) acts as a signalling molecule that facilitates various biochemical and physiological processes. H₂O₂ is a versatile molecule, involved in several cellular processes both under stress and stress-free conditions. In regulating plant metabolism under stress conditions, exogenous application of H₂O₂ also plays a pivotal role which is manifested in improved growth, photosynthetic capacity, and antioxidant protection. Abiotic stress is an inevitable environmental factor that extensively affects and reduces growth, quality, yield, and productivity of plants....

Our gratitude and congratulations to our guest editor Julian Eaton-Rye and thanks to all the 167 contributors to the special issue honoring professor GovindjeeLetter to the Editor

Győző Garab

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1235-1236 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0826-4

Comparative photosynthetic attributes of emmer and modern wheats in response to water and nitrogen supply

M. Vaghar, P. Ehsanzadeh

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1224-1234 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0825-5

A field study was conducted with the aim to elucidate photosynthetic responses of five emmer hulled wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) accessions to 30 (N-limited) and 100 kg(N) ha^-1 (N-sufficient) conditions at control and drought stress (irrigation after 30-40% and 60-70% depletion of available soil water, respectively). Chlorophyll (Chl) a and Chl b concentrations of the emmer wheats remained unchanged but net photosynthetic rate and dry mass increased and decreased, respectively, when received a sufficient amount of N. Smaller drought-induced decreases in Chl concentration, membrane stability index, and dry...

Combined stresses of light and chilling on photosynthesis of Fraxinus mandschurica seedlings in northeastern China

X. F. Li, L. Jin, C. Y. Zhu, Y. J. Wen, Y. Wang

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1218-1223 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0803-y

The chilling and light stresses were experimentally created to explore photosynthesis of Fraxinus mandshurica seedlings in northeast China. Net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate decreased significantly with the decline of temperature and light. Significant interaction effects of light and chilling were observed on gas exchange of photosynthesis. The minimal fluorescence yield of the dark-adapted state (F₀) increased with increasing light and decreasing temperature. Both high and low light stresses induced the decreases of the maximal quantum yield of PSII photochemistry (F_v/F_m),...

Photosynthesis and leaf development of cherry tomato seedlings under different LED-based blue and red photon flux ratios

X. Y. Liu, X. L. Jiao, T. T. Chang, S. R. Guo, Z. G. Xu

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1212-1217 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0814-8

We investigated the photosynthesis and leaf development of cherry tomato seedlings grown under five different combinations of red and blue light provided by light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Fresh biomass increased significantly under treatments with blue light percentages of 50, 60, and 75%, with 50% blue-light-grown seedlings accumulating significantly more dry mass. The 25% blue-light-grown seedlings were obviously weaker than those from the other LED treatments. An increase in net photosynthetic rate upon blue light exposure (25-60%) was associated with increases in leaf mass per unit leaf area, leaf area, leaf density, stomatal number, chloroplast...

Effects of exogenous calcium on mesophyll cell ultrastructure, gas exchange, and photosystem II in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum Linn.) under drought stress

W. Hu, S. B. Tian, Q. Di, S. H. Duan, K. Dai

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1204-1211 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0822-8

The effects of calcium chloride solution (10 mmol L^-1) on mesophyll cell ultrastructure, gas exchange, chlorophyll and carotenoid content, and PSII in tobacco leaf were studied by simulating water deficit conditions via treatment with 25% PEG-6000 for 24 h. The results showed that under drought stress, the mesophyll cell structure and morphology were destroyed, photosynthesis and gas-exchange processes changed, photosynthetic pigment content decreased, and the electron transfer efficiency in PSII reduced. However, compared with the control treatment, under drought conditions, the addition of exogenous calcium could stabilize...

Physiological changes and growth promotion induced in poplar seedlings by the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria Bacillus subtilis JS

J. H. Jang, S. -H. Kim, I. Khaine, M. J. Kwak, H. K. Lee, T. Y. Lee, W. Y. Lee, S. Y. Woo

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1188-1203 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0801-0

This study aimed to determine the effects of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria Bacillus subtilis JS on the growth and physiological changes of Populus euramericana and Populus deltoides × P. nigra. Poplar seedlings were treated with B. subtilis JS and their growth was monitored for up to 120 d. Three different types of treatments [control, B1 (B. subtilis:double-distilled water, 1:100, v/v), and B2 (1:50)] were established. B. subtilis JS enhanced seedling height by 62% and total biomass by 37% after 120 d. Physiologically, the photosynthetic rate increased by 54%, and the total chlorophyll (Chl) content,...

Relationship between photosynthetic rate, water use and leaf structure in desert annual and perennial forbs differing in their growth

L. Gonzalez-Paleo, D.A. Ravetta

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1177-1187 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0810-z

Specific leaf area (SLA) is a key trait to screen plants for ecological performance and productivity; however, the relationship between SLA and photosynthesis is not always up-scalable to growth when comparing multiple species with different life cycles. We explored leaf anatomy in annual and perennial species of Physaria, and related it to photosynthesis and water loss. The annual Physaria gracilis had higher SLA, thinner leaves, and lower investment in protective tissues, than perennial P. mendocina. Physaria angustifolia (annual), and P. pinetorum (perennial) showed intermediate values. Both perennials had a thicker...

Thermal acclimation of the temperature dependence of the V_Cmax of Rubisco in quinoa

J.A. Bunce

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1171-1176 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0799-3

Changes in the temperature dependence of the maximum carboxylation capacity (V_Cmax) of Rubisco during thermal acclimation of P_N remain controversial. I tested for acclimation of the temperature dependence of V_Cmax in quinoa, wheat, and alfalfa. Plants were grown with day/night temperatures of 12/6, 20/14, and 28/22°C. Responses of PN to substomatal CO₂ (C_i) and CO₂ at Rubisco (C_c) were measured at leaf temperatures of 10-30°C. V_Cmax was determined from the initial slope of the P_Nvs. C_i or C_c...

Chlorophyll fluorescence and gas exchange measurements in field research: an ecological case study

S. F. Bucher, M. Bernhardt-Römermann, C. Römermann

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1161-1170 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0809-5

We tested whether cheap and quick chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence can be used in ecophysiological field studies as proxies for gas-exchange measurements. We measured net photosynthetic rate at saturating irradiance and ambient atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (P_Nsat), maximum carboxylation rate (V_cmax), maximum quantum yield of PSII (F_v/F_m), the performance index (PIabs), leaf nitrogen (Narea), and carbon isotope discrimination (Δ¹³C) within four herbaceous species along two elevational gradients. We analysed the relationship between Chl fluorescence and gas-exchange parameters...

H₂O₂-induced acclimation of photosystem II to excess light is mediated by alternative respiratory pathway and salicylic acid

Q. Z. Hou, Y. P. Wang, J. Y. Liang, L. Y. Jia, H. Q. Feng, J. Wen, N. Ehmet, J. Y. Bai

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1154-1160 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0806-8

Acclimation to excess light is required for optimizing plant performance under natural environment. The present work showed that the treatment of Arabidopsis leaves with exogenous H₂O₂ can increase the acclimation of PSII to excess light. Treatments with H₂O₂ also enhanced the capacity of the mitochondrial alternative respiratory pathway and salicylic acid (SA) content. Our work also showed that the lack in alternative oxidase (AOX1a) in AtAOX1a antisense line and the SA deficiency in NahG (salicylate hydroxylase gene) transgenic mutant attenuated the H₂O₂-induced acclimation...

The effects of lead on photosynthetic performance of waxberry seedlings (Myrica rubra)

B. He, M. Gu, X. Wang, X. He

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1147-1153 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0800-1

The photosynthesis was investigated 30 d after Pb treatment in Myrica rubra seedlings. The Pb treatment resulted in significantly increased Pb concentrations in shoots. Low Pb concentration exposure (≤2 mM) reduced the net photosynthetic rate (P_N), transpiration rate (E), and stomatal conductance (gs) without affecting the intercellular CO₂ concentration (C_i), chlorophyll (Chl) content, and Chl fluorescence parameters. At 10 d after severe Pb treatment (≥4 mM), P_N was inhibited and accompanied by Chl damage, while at 30 d, the inhibition of P_N...

Physio-anatomical responses of tobacco under caffeine stress

R. Alkhatib, B. Alkhatib, L. Al-Eitan, N. Abdo, M. Tadros, E. Bsoul

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1140-1146 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0798-4

Caffeine, a purine alkaloid, is reported to act both as an inducer or inhibitor to plant growth in various species. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of exogenous caffeine on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants, a plant that does not naturally synthesise caffeine. A hydroponic experiment was carried out in a growth chamber for 14 d using Hoagland's solution supplemented with 0 (control), 25, 50, 100, 1,000; and 5,000 μM caffeine. None of the investigated caffeine concentrations significantly decreased the net photosynthetic rate except the highest concentrations of 1,000 and 5,000 μM. Light microscopy of thick-sectioned roots...

Autumnal leaf abscission of sugar maple is not delayed by atmospheric CO₂ enrichment

L. Li, W. J. Manning, X. K. Wang

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1134-1139 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0802-z

To investigate the effects of atmospheric CO₂ enrichment on physiology and autumnal leaf phenology, we exposed 3-year-old sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) seedlings to 800 (A8), 600 (A6), and 400 μL(CO₂) L^-1 (AA) in nine continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) chambers during the growing season of 2014. Leaf abscission timing, abscised leaf area percentages, leaf number, light-saturated net photosynthetic rate (P_Nmax), leaf area, accumulative growth rates, and biomass were determined and assessed. The results suggested the following: (1) no significant differences were found in the...

Comparative chloroplast proteome analysis of exogenously supplied trehalose to wheat seedlings under heat stress

Y. Luo, H. Y. Liu, Y. Z. Fan, W. Wang, Y. Y. Zhao

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1123-1133 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0808-6

The aim of our study was to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of exogenously supplied trehalose affecting wheat photosynthesis under heat stress. The amount of ATP synthase (ATPase), oxygen-evolving enhancer protein (OEE), PsbP, Rubisco, chloroplast fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (FBPA), and ferredoxin-NADP(H) oxidoreductase (FNR) were downregulated, while PSI reaction center subunits were upregulated under heat stress. However, in the trehalose-pretreated groups, the amount of FNR, cytochrome b₆f complex, PSI reaction center subunits, ATPase, FBPA, and Rubisco were upregulated under normal growth conditions and...

Effect of light quality on leaf photosynthetic characteristics and fruit quality of peach (Prunus persica L. Batch)

B.-B. Zhang, J.-L. Xu, M. Zhou, D.-H. Yan, R.-J. Ma

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1113-1122 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0820-x

Different light filters affect leaf photosynthetic features and fruit quality. Consequently, selecting the appropriate covering filter for rain-shelter cultivation of peaches is a key part of successful production. We used a late-maturing peach variety 'Xiahui 8' to study differences in leaf photosynthetic features, chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics, and fruit quality under neutral, red, yellow, green, and blue filter, with natural light as control. The results showed that the leaf photosynthetic ability and internal quality under the neutral filter treatment were elevated compared with the control, and the appearance color was the same as the...

Diurnal temperature-related variations in photosynthetic enzyme activities of two C₄ species of Chenopodiaceae grown in natural environment

T. Y. Orujova, S. M. Bayramov, U. A. Gurbanova, H. G. Babayev, M. N. Aliyeva, N. M. Guliyev, Y. M. Feyziyev

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1107-1112 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0804-x

The effects of the diurnal variations in ambient temperature on some C₃ and C₄ enzymes in the Salsola dendroides and Suaeda altissima species of Chenopodiaceae family were studied during the intensive vegetation period. Activities of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and cytosolic aspartate aminotransferase (AsAT) were shown to decrease in both species in the afternoon and evening. The activity of the mitochondrial AsAT decreased in S. altissima, remained relatively constant in S. dendroides during the day. The activity of alanine aminotransferase was high in the S. dendroides species...

Physiological responses of Pterocladiella capillacea (Rhodophyta, Gelidiales) under two light intensities

T.B. Harb, A. Nardelli, F. Chow

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1093-1106 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0805-9

Macroalgae must be able to survive in conditions of different light intensities with no damage to their physiological performance or vital processes. Irradiance can stimulate the biosynthesis of certain photoprotective compounds of biotechnological interest, such as pigments and proteins. Pterocladiella capillacea is a shade-grown alga, which play a role key in the balance of marine ecosystems. In addition, it is considered one of the best sources of bacteriological agar and agarose with a wide pharmacological potential. In order to evaluate the photosensitivity in P. capillacea under 60 (control) and moderate light intensity of 300 μmol(photon)...

Effects of GeO₂ on chlorophyll fluorescence and antioxidant enzymes in apple leaves under strong light

Z. B. Wang, Y. F. Wang, J. J. Zhao, L. Ma, Y. J. Wang, X. Zhang, Y. T. Nie, Y. P. Guo, L. X. Mei, Z. Y. Zhao

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1081-1092 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0807-7

In this study, we chose apple leaf as plant material and studied effects of GeO₂ on operation of photosynthetic apparatus and antioxidant enzyme activities under strong light. When exogenous GeO₂ concentration was below 5.0 mg L^-1, maximum photochemical quantum yield of PSII and actual quantum yield of PSII photochemistry increased significantly compared with the control under irradiances of 800 and 1,600 μmol(photon) m^-2 s^-1. Photosynthetic electron transport chain capacity between Q_A-Q_B, Q_A-PSI acceptor, and Q_B-PSI acceptor showed a trend of rising...

Photosynthetic, physiological and biochemical events associated with polyethylene glycol-mediated osmotic stress tolerance in taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott)

M. R. Sahoo, M. Dasgupta, P. C. Kole, A. Mukherjee

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1069-1080 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0819-3

Six genotypes of taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) were evaluated under in vitro and in vivo polyethylene glycol (PEG-6000)-mediated osmotic stress conditions. A significant variation in growth response was observed among the taro genotypes under in vitro-induced stress conditions. In vivo results indicated a significant effect of osmotic stress on photosynthetic parameters, such as net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, stomatal resistance, internal CO₂ concentration, carboxylation efficiency, and transpiration efficiency on the tested genotypes at the tuberization stage....

Photosynthesis and physiology responses of paired near-isogenic lines in waxy maize (Zea mays L.) to nicosulfuron

J. Wang, X. M. Zhong, X. L. Lv, Z. S. Shi, F. H. Li

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1059-1068 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0816-6

Nicosulfuron is a post-emergence herbicide used for weed control in fields of maize (Zea mays L.). We used a pair of nearly isogenic inbred lines, SN509-R (nicosulfuron-resistant) and SN509-S (nicosulfuron-sensitive), to study the effect of nicosulfuron on waxy maize seedling. After the nicosulfuron treatment, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, leaf maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII, photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence, and the actual photochemical efficiency of PSII were significantly lower in SN509-S than those of SN509-R, contrary to intercellular CO₂ concentration, stomatal...

Silicon nutrition mitigates salinity stress in maize by modulating ion accumulation, photosynthesis, and antioxidants

W. U. D. Khan, T. Aziz, M. A. Maqsood, M. Farooq, Y. Abdullah, P. M. A. Ramzani, H. M. Bilal

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1047-1057 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0812-x

Silicon is known to improve resistance against salinity stress in maize crop. This study was conducted to evaluate the influence of silicon application on growth and salt resistance in maize. Seeds of two maize genotypes (salt-sensitive 'EV 1089' and salt-tolerant 'Syngenta 8441') were grown in pots containing 0 and 2 mM Si with and without 50 mM NaCl. After detailed investigation of ion concentrations in different maize organs, both genotypes were further selected in hydroponic experiment on basis of their contrasting response to salinity stress. In the second experiment, pre-germinated seedlings were transplanted into nutrient solution with 0 and...

Effect of ammonium/nitrate ratio on pak choi (Brassica chinensis L.) photosynthetic capacity and biomass accumulation under low light intensity and water deficit

H.Q. Shang, G.M. Shen

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1039-1046 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0815-7

We conducted a hydroponic experiment in order to study effects of the ammonium/nitrate ratio (0:15, 5:10, 7.5:7.5, and 10:5) on photosynthetic characteristics and biomass accumulation in Brassica chinensis under low light intensity and water stress. Results showed that net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, intrinsic water-use efficiency, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO₂ concentration, effective quantum yield of PSII photochemistry, electron transport rate, and nonphotochemical quenching were lower in the treatment (low light intensity and water deficit) than those in the control, whereas stomatal limitation increased....

Photosynthetic and yield responses of rice (Oryza sativa L.) to different water management strategies in subtropical China

X. H. Wu, W. Wang, X. L. Xie, C. M. Yin, K. J. Xie

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1031-1038 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0817-5

An experiment was performed to study gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence responses of rice (Oryza sativa L.) to various regimes, such as flooding-midseason drying-flooding (FDF), flooding-midseason drying-saturation (FDS), and flooding-rain-fed (FR) regimes. Compared to FDF, FR resulted in an obvious decrease in net photosynthetic rate (P_N), due to the decrease in stomatal conductance and the increase in stomatal limitation. In contrast, FDS plants did not suffer stomatal limitation and had comparable P_N with FDF plants. For diurnal light-saturated electron transport rate and saturation irradiance, FDF...

Morpho-physiological and biochemical responses of muskmelon genotypes to different degree of water deficit

W. A. Ansari, N. Atri, B. Singh, P. Kumar, S. Pandey

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1019-1030 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0821-9

Morpho-physiological and biochemical analyses were carried out in eight diverse indigenous muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) genotypes exposed to different degrees of water deficit (WD). The ability of genotypes MM-7, and especially MM-6, to counteract better the negative effect of WD was associated with maintaining higher relative water content (RWC), photosynthetic rate, efficiency of PSII, and photosynthetic pigments compare to other genotypes. Furthermore, MM-6 showed a better ability to maintain cellular homeostasis than the others. It was indicated by a stimulated antioxidative defense system, i.e., higher activities of antioxidant enzymes,...

Variation of photosynthetic characteristics and yield in wild and cultivated species of yams (Dioscorea spp.) from Koraput, India

B. Padhan, D. Panda

Photosynthetica 2018, 56(4):1010-1018 | DOI: 10.1007/s11099-018-0823-7

Variations in leaf gas-exchange characteristics, PSII activity, leaf pigments, and tuber yield were investigated in seven wild and one cultivated species of Dioscorea from Koraput, India, in order to find out their overall adaptability to the environment. The leaf photosynthetic rate, transpiration, stomatal conductance, water-use efficiency, carboxylation efficiency, and photosynthetic pigments were significantly higher in some wild species compared to the cultivated species. In addition, some wild species showed better photochemical efficiency of PSII, photochemical quenching, and electron transport rate in comparison to cultivated one. Furthermore,...