Photosynthetica 2004, 42(4):481-486 | DOI: 10.1007/S11099-005-0001-6

Effects of salt stress on basic processes of photosynthesis

P. Sudhir1, S.D.S. Murthy1,*
1 Department of Biochemistry, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, India

Salt stress causes decrease in plant growth and productivity by disrupting physiological processes, especially photosynthesis. The accumulation of intracellular sodium ions at salt stress changes the ratio of K : Na, which seems to affect the bioenergetic processes of photosynthesis. Both multiple inhibitory effects of salt stress on photosynthesis and possible salt stress tolerance mechanisms in cyanobacteria and plants are reviewed.

Additional key words: carboxylases; carotenoids; chlorophyll; cyanobacteria; electron transport; eukaryotic algae; NaCl; photophosphorylation; photosynthetic rate; photosystems; phycobiliproteins; salt tolerance

Received: March 8, 2004; Accepted: October 5, 2004; Published: December 1, 2004Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Sudhir, P., & Murthy, S.D.S. (2004). Effects of salt stress on basic processes of photosynthesis. Photosynthetica, 42(4), 481-486. doi: 10.1007/S11099-005-0001-6
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Abdullah, Z., Ahmed, R.: Effect of pre and post kinetin treatment on salt tolerance of different potato cultivars growing on saline soils.-J. Agron. Crop Sci. 165: 94-102, 1990. Go to original source...
    2. Allakhverdiev, S.I., Nishiyama, Y., Miyairi, S., Yamamoto, H., Inagaki, N., Kanesaki, Y., Murata, N.: Salt stress inhibits the repair of photodamaged photosystem II by suppressing the transcription and translation of psbA genes in Synechocystis.-Plant Physiol. 130: 1443-1453, 2002. Go to original source...
    3. Allakhverdiev, S.I., Nishiyama, Y., Suzuki, I., Tasaka, Y., Murata, N.: Genetic engineering of the unsaturation of fatty acids in membrane lipids alters the tolerance of Synechocystis to salt stress.-Proc. nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96: 5862-5867, 1999. Go to original source...
    4. Allakhverdiev, S.I., Sakamoto, A., Nishiyama, Y., Inaba, M., Murata, N.: Ionic and osmotic effects of NaCl-induced inactivation of photosystems I and II in Synechococcus sp.-Plant Physiol. 123: 1047-1056, 2000. Go to original source...
    5. Apte, S.K., Thomas, J.: Impairment of photosynthesis by sodium deficiency and its relationship to nitrogen fixation in the cyanobacterium Anabaena torulosa.-FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 16: 153-157, 1983. Go to original source...
    6. Ashraf, M., Shahbaz, M.: Assessment of genotypic variation in salt tolerance of early CIMMYT hexaploid wheat germplasm using photosynthetic capacity and water relations as selection criteria.-Photosynthetica 41: 273-280, 2003. Go to original source...
    7. Ball, M.C., Chaw, W.S., Anderson, J.M.: Salinity induced potassium deficiency causes loss of functional photosystem II in leaves of the grey mangrove, Avicennia marina, through depletion of the atrazine-binding polypeptide.-Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 14: 351-361, 1987. Go to original source...
    8. Batterton, J.C., Van Baalen, C.: Growth response of blue-green algae to sodium chloride concentration.-Arch. Mikrobiol. 14: 351-361, 1971. Go to original source...
    9. Belkhodja, R., Morales, F., Abadia, A., Gomez-Aparisi, J., Abadia, J.: Chlorophyll fluorescence as a possible tool for salinity tolerance screening in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.).-Plant Physiol. 104: 667-673, 1994. Go to original source...
    10. Booth, W.A., Beardall, J.: Effect of salinity on inorganic carbon utilization and carbonic anhydrase activity in the halotolerant algae Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta).-Phycologia 30: 220-225, 1991. Go to original source...
    11. Boyer, J.S.: Water deficits and photosynthesis.-In: Kozlowsky, T.T. (ed.): Water Deficit and Plant Growth. Vol. IV. Pp. 153-190. Academic Press, New York-San Francisco-London 1976. Go to original source...
    12. Brown, I.I., Fadeyev, S.I., Gerasimenko, L.M., Kirik, I.I., Pushenko, M., Severina, I.I.: Sodium ions are necessary for growth and energy transduction in the marine cyanobacterium Oscillatoria brevis.-Arch. Microbiol. 153: 409-411, 1990. Go to original source...
    13. Brugnoli, E., Björkman, O.: Growth of cotton under continuous salinity stress: influence on allocation pattern, stomatal and no-stomatal components of photosynthesis and dissipation of excess light energy.-Planta 187: 335-347, 1992. Go to original source...
    14. Canaani, O.: The role of cyclic electron flow around photosystem I and excitation energy distribution between the photosystems upon acclimation to high ionic strength in Dunaliella salina.- Photochem. Photobiol. 52: 591-599, 1990. Go to original source...
    15. Downton, W.J.S.: Photosynthesis in salt-stressed grapevines.-Aust. J. Plant. Physiol. 4: 183-192, 1977.
    16. Downton, W.J.S.: Growth and osmotic relations of the mangrove, Avicennia marina, as influenced by salinity.-Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 9: 519-528, 1982.
    17. Echevarría, C., Garcia-Mauriño, S., Alvarez, R., Soler, A., Vidal, J.: Salt stress increases the Ca+2-independent phospho-enolpyruvate carboxylase kinase activity in Sorghum leaves.-Planta 214: 283-287, 2001. Go to original source...
    18. Endo, T., Schreiber, U., Asada, K.: Suppression of quantum yield of photosystem II by hyperosmotic stress in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.- Plant Cell Physiol. 36: 1253-1258, 1995.
    19. Espie, G.S., Miller, A.G., Canvin, D.T.: Characterization of the Na+-requirement in cyanobacterial photosynthesis.-Plant Physiol. 88: 757-763, 1988. Go to original source...
    20. Everard, J.D., Gucci, R., Kann, S.C., Flore, J.A., Loescher, W.H.: Gas exchange and carbon partitioning in the leaves of celery (Apium graveolens L.). at various levels of root zone salinity.-Plant Physiol. 106: 281-292, 1994. Go to original source...
    21. Fernandez-Valiente, E., Avendano, M.C.: Sodium-stimulation of phosphate uptake in the cyanobacterium Anabaena PCC 7119.-Plant Cell Physiol. 34: 201-207, 1993.
    22. Fork, D.C., Herbert, S.K.: Electron transport and photophosphorylation by Photosystem I in vivo in plants and cyanobacteria.-Photosynth. Res. 36: 149-168, 1993. Go to original source...
    23. García-Mauriño, S., Monreal, J.A., Alvarez, R., Vidal, J., Echevarría, C.: Characterization of salt stress-enhanced phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase kinase activity in leaves of Sorghum vulgare: independence from osmotic stress, involvement of ion toxicity and significance of dark phosphorylation.-Planta 216: 648-655, 2003. Go to original source...
    24. Gilmour, D.J., Hipkins, M.F., Webber, A.N., Baker, N.R., Boney, A.D.: The effect of ionic stress on photosynthesis in Dunaliella tertiolecta. Chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics and spectral characteristics.-Planta 163: 250-256, 1985. Go to original source...
    25. Golldack, D., Dietz, K.J.: Salt-induced expression of the vacuolar H+-ATPase in the common ice plant is developmentally controlled and tissue specific.-Plant Physiol. 125: 1643-1654, 2001. Go to original source...
    26. Gorham, J., Wyn Jones, R.G., McDonnel, E.: Some mechanisms of salt tolerance in crop plants.-Plant Soil 89: 15-40, 1985. Go to original source...
    27. Grossman, A.R., Schaefer, M.R., Chiang, G.G., Collier, J.L.: The phycobilisome, a light-harvesting complex responsive to environmental conditions.-Microbiol. Rev. 57: 725-749, 1993. Go to original source...
    28. Gupta, N.K., Meena, S.K., Gupta, S., Khandelwal, S.K.: Gas exchange, membrane permeability, and ion uptake in two species of Indian jujube differing in salt tolerance.-Photosynthetica 40: 535-539, 2002. Go to original source...
    29. Hajar, A.S., Zidan, M.A., Al-Zahruni, H.S.: Effect of salinity stress on the germination, growth, and some physiological activities of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.).-Arab Gulf J. Sci. Res. 14: 445-454, 1996.
    30. Hamada, A.M., El-Enany, A.E.: Effect of NaCl salinity on growth, pigment and mineral element contents, and gas exchange of broad bean and pea plants.-Biol. Plant. 36: 75-81, 1994. Go to original source...
    31. Hamilton, C.A., Taylor, G.J., Good, A.G.: Vacuolar H(+)-ATPase, but not mitochondrial F(1) F(0)-ATPase, is required for NaCl tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.- FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 208: 227, 2002. Go to original source...
    32. Hasegawa, P.M., Bressan, R.A., Zhu, J.-K., Bohnert, H.J.: Plant cellular and molecular response to high salinity.-Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant mol. Biol. 51: 463-499, 2000. Go to original source...
    33. Hayashi, H., Murata, N.: Genetically engineered enhancement of salt tolerance in higher plants.-In: Satoh, K., Murata, N. (ed.): Stress Responses of Photosynthetic Organisms: Molecular Mechanisms and Molecular Regulation. Pp. 133-148. Elsevier, Amsterdam-Lausanne-New York-Oxford-Shannon-Singapore-Tokyo 1998. Go to original source...
    34. Hibino, T., Lee, B.H., Rai, A.K., Ishikawa, H., Kojima, H., Tawada, M., Shimoyama, H., Takabe, T.: Salt enhances photosystem I content and cyclic electron flow via NAD(P)H dehydrogenase in the halotolerant cyanobacterium Aphanothece halophytica.- Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 23: 321-330, 1996. Go to original source...
    35. Hsiao, T.C.: Additive and interactive effects of soil salinity and water regimes on crop-growth responses and osmoregulation.-In: Letey, J. (ed.): Soil and Plant Interactions with Salinity. Agr. Exp. Stat. Univ. Calif. Spec. Publ. 3315: 18-22, 1986.
    36. Jain, M., Mathur, G., Koul, S., Sarin, N.B.: Amelioration effects of proline on salt stress induced lipid peroxidation in cell lines of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.).-Plant Cell Rep. 20: 463, 2001. Go to original source...
    37. Jeanjean, R., Matthijs, H.C.P., Onana, B., Havaux, M., Joset, F.: Exposure of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803 to salt stress induces concerted changes in respiration and photosynthesis.-Plant Cell Physiol. 34: 1073-1079, 1993.
    38. Joset, F., Jeanjean, R., Hagemann, M.: Dynamics of the response of cyanobacteria to salt stress: deciphering the molecular events.-Physiol. Plant. 96: 738-744, 1996. Go to original source...
    39. Kao, W.-Y., Tsai, T.-T., Shih, C.-N.: Photosynthetic gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence of three wild soybean species in response to NaCl treatments.-Photosynthetica 41: 415-419, 2003. Go to original source...
    40. Kirst, G.O.: Salinity tolerance of eukaryotic marine algae.-Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant mol. Biol. 40: 21-53, 1989.
    41. Krulwich, T.A.: Alkaliphiles: 'basic' molecular problems of pH tolerance and bioenergetics.-Mol. Microbiol. 15: 403-410, 1995. Go to original source...
    42. Krulwich, T.A., Guffanti, A.A., Bornstein, R.F., Hoffstein, J.: A sodium requirement for growth, solute transport, and pH homeostasis in Bacillus firmus RAB.-J. biol. Chem. 257: 1885-1889, 1982.
    43. Kulshreshtha, S., Mishra, D.P., Gupta, R.K.: Changes in contents of chlorophyll, proteins and lipids in whole chloroplasts and chloroplast membrane fractions at different water potential in drought resistant and sensitive genotypes of wheat.-Photosynthetica 21: 65-70, 1987.
    44. Kuwabara, T., Murata, N.: Inactivation of photosynthetic oxygen evolution and concomitant release of three polypeptides in the photosystem II particles of spinach chloroplasts.-Plant Cell Physiol. 23: 533-539, 1982. Go to original source...
    45. Lapina, L.P., Popov, B.A.: [Effect of sodium chloride on photosynthetic apparatus of tomatoes.]-Fiziol. Rast. 17: 580-584, 1970. [In R.]
    46. Lu, C., Torzilo, G., Vonshak, A.: Kinetic response of photosystem II photochemistry in cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis to high salinity is characterized by two distinct phases.-Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 26: 283-292, 1999.
    47. Lu, C., Vonshak, A.: Characterization of PS II photochemistry in salt-adapted cells of cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis.-New Phytol. 141: 231-239, 1999. Go to original source...
    48. Lu, C., Vonshak, A.: Effects of salinity on photosystem II function in cyanobacterial Spirulina platensis cells.-Physiol. Plant. 114: 405-413, 2002. Go to original source...
    49. Maeso, E.S., Piñas, F.F., Gonzalez, M.G., Valiente, E.F.: Sodium requirement for photosynthesis and its relationship with dinitrogen fixation and the external CO2 concentration in cyanobacteria.-Plant Physiol. 85: 585-587, 1987. Go to original source...
    50. Marschner, H.: Mineral Nutrition in Higher Plants.-Pp. 477-542. Academic Press, London 1986.
    51. Marschner, H.: Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants. 2nd Ed.-Academic Press, San Diego 1995.
    52. Masojídek, J., Hall, D.O.: Salinity and drought stress are amplified by high irradiance in sorghum.-Photosynthetica 27: 159-171, 1992.
    53. Miller, A.G., Turpin, D.H., Canvin, D.T.: Na+ requirement for growth, photosynthesis, and pH regulation in the alkalotolerant cyanobacterium Synechococcus leopoliensis.- J. Bacteriol. 159: 100-106, 1984. Go to original source...
    54. Mishra, S.K., Subrahmanyam, D., Singhal, G.S.: Inter-relationship between salt and light stress on the primary processes of photosynthesis.-J. Plant Physiol. 138: 92-96, 1991. Go to original source...
    55. Misra, A.N., Sahu, S.M., Mishra, M., Ramaswamy, N.K., Desai, T.S.: Sodium chloride salt stress induced changes in thylakoid pigment-protein complexes, photosystem II activity and thermoluminescence glow peaks.-Z. Naturforsch. 54C: 640-644, 1999. Go to original source...
    56. Misra, A.N., Sahu, S.M., Mishra, M., Singh, P., Meera, I., Das, N., Kar, M., Sahu, P.: Sodium chloride induced changes in leaf growth and pigment and protein contents in two rice cultivars.-Biol. Plant. 39: 257-262, 1997. Go to original source...
    57. Miyao, M., Murata, N.: Partial disintegration and reconstitution of the photosynthetic oxygen evolution system. Binding of 24 kilodalton and 18 kilodalton polypeptides.-Biochim. biophys. Acta 725: 87-93, 1983. Go to original source...
    58. Miyao, M., Murata, N.: Calcium ions can be substituted for the 24-kDa polypeptide in photosynthetic oxygen evolution.-FEBS Lett. 168: 118-120, 1984. Go to original source...
    59. Moisender, P.H., McClinton, E., Paerl, H.W.: Salinity effects on growth, photosynthetic parameters, and nitrogenase activity in estuarine planktonic cyanobacteria.-Microbiol. Ecol. 43: 432-442, 2002. Go to original source...
    60. Morales, F., Abadía, A., Gómez-Aparisi, J., Abadía, J.: Effect of combined NaCl and CaCl2 salinity on photosynthetic parameters of barley grown in nutrient solution.-Physiol. Plant. 86: 419-426, 1992. Go to original source...
    61. Munns, R.: Comparative physiology of salt and water stress.-Plant Cell Environ. 25: 239-250, 2002. Go to original source...
    62. Muranaka, S., Shimizu, K., Kato, M.: Ionic and osmotic effects of salinity on single-leaf photosynthesis in two wheat cultivars with different drought tolerance.-Photosynthetica 40: 201-207, 2002a. Go to original source...
    63. Muranaka, S., Shimizu, K., Kato, M.: A salt-tolerant cultivar of wheat maintains photosynthetic activity by suppressing sodium uptake.-Photosynthetica 40: 509-515, 2002b. Go to original source...
    64. Murata, N., Mohanty, P.S., Hayashi, H., Papageorgiou, G.C.: Glycinebetaine stabilizes the association of extrinsic proteins with the photosynthetic oxygen evolving complex.-FEBS Lett. 296: 187-189, 1992. Go to original source...
    65. Murphy, K.S.T., Durako, M.J.: Physiological effects of short-term salinity changes on Ruppia maritima.-Aquat. Bot. 75: 293-309, 2003. Go to original source...
    66. Murthy, S.D.S., Rajagopal, S.: UV-B radiation induced alterations in the bioenergetic processes of photosynthesis.-Photosynthetica 31: 481-487, 1995.
    67. Nomura, M., Ishitani, M., Takabe, T., Rai, A.K., Takabe, T.: Synechococcus sp. PCC7942 transformed with Escherichia coli bet genes produces betaine and aquires resistance to salt stress.-Plant Physiol. 107: 703-708, 1995. Go to original source...
    68. Parida, A.K., Das, A.B., Mittra, B.: Effects of NaCl stress on the structure, pigment complex composition, and photosynthetic activity of mangrove Bruguiera parviflora chloroplasts.-Photosynthetica 41: 191-200, 2003. Go to original source...
    69. Parks, G.E., Dietrich, M.A., Schumaker, K.S.: Increased vacuolar Na+ /H+ exchange activity in Salicornia bigelovii Torr. in response to NaCl.-J. exp. Bot. 53: 1055-1065, 2002. Go to original source...
    70. Peschek, G.A., Obinger, C., Fromwald, S., Bergman, B.: Correlation between immunogold labels and activities of the cytochrome-c-oxidase (aa3-type) in membranes of salt stressed cyanobacteria.-FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 124: 431-437, 1994. Go to original source...
    71. Pogoryelov, D., Sudhir, P.-R., Kovacs, L., Gombos, Z., Brown, I., Garab, G.: Sodium dependency of the photosynthetic electron transport in alkaliphilic cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis.-J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 35: 427-37, 2003. Go to original source...
    72. Ranjbarfordoei, A., Samson, R., Lemeur, R., van Damme, P.: Effects of osmotic drought stress induced by combination of NaCl and polyethylene glycol on leaf water status, photosynthetic gas exchange, and water use efficiency of Pistacia khinjuk and P. mutica.-Photosynthetica 40: 165-169, 2002. Go to original source...
    73. Reddy, M.P., Vora, A.B.: Changes in pigment composition. Hill reaction activity and saccharides metabolism in bajra (Penisetum typhoides S & H) leaves under NaCl salinity.-Photosynthetica 20: 50-55, 1986.
    74. Rhoades, J.D., Loveday, J.: Salinity in irrigated agriculture.-In: Steward, B.A., Neilsen, D.R. (ed.): Irrigation of Agricultural Crops. Pp. 1089-1142. ASA, CSSA, SSSA 1990.
    75. Robinson, S.P., Downton, W.J.S., Millhouse, J.A.: Photosynthesis and ion content of leaves and isolated chloroplasts of salt-stressed spinach.-Plant Physiol. 73: 238-242, 1983. Go to original source...
    76. Rodriguez, R., Lara, C., Guerrero, M.G.: Nitrate transport in the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans R-2: kinetic and energetic aspects.-Biochem. J. 282: 639-643, 1992. Go to original source...
    77. Sayed, O.H.: Chlorophyll fluorescence as a tool in cereal crop research.-Photosynthetica 41: 321-330, 2003. Go to original source...
    78. Schlesinger, P., Belkin, S., Boussiba, S.: Sodium deprivation under alkaline conditions causes rapid death of the filamentous cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis.-J. Phycol. 32: 608-613, 1996. Go to original source...
    79. Schubert, H., Fulda, S., Hagemann, M.: Effects of adaptation to different salt concentrations on photosynthesis and pigmentation of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6083.-J. Plant Physiol. 142: 291-295, 1993. Go to original source...
    80. Schubert, H., Hagemann, M.: Salt effects on 77K fluorescence and photosynthesis in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.-FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 71: 169-172, 1990. Go to original source...
    81. Seemann, J.R., Critchley, C.: Effects of salt stress on the growth, ion content, stomatal behaviour and photosynthetic capacity of a salt-sensitive species, Phaseolus vulgaris L.-Planta 164: 151-162, 1985. Go to original source...
    82. Sheekh-El, M.M., Omar, H.H.: Effect of high salt stress on growth and fatty acids content of the unicellular green algae Chlorella vulgaris.-Amer. J. Microbiol. 55: 181-191, 2002.
    83. Singh, A.K., Chakravarthy, D., Singh, T.P.K., Singh, H.N.: Evidence for L-proline as a salinity protectant in the cyanobacterium Nostoc muscorum.-Plant Cell Environ. 19: 490-494, 1996. Go to original source...
    84. Singh, A.K., Dubey, R.S.: Changes in chlorophyll a and b contents and activities of photosystems 1 and 2 in rice seedlings induced by NaCl.-Photosynthetica 31: 489-499, 1995.
    85. Singh, M.P., Pandey, S.K., Singh, M., Ram, P.C., Singh, B.B.: Photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance and leaf chlorophyll content in mustard genotypes grown under sodic conditions.-Photosynthetica 24: 623-627, 1990.
    86. Sivakumar, P., Sharmila, P., Pardha Saradhi, P.: Proline alleviates salt-stress-induced enhancement in ribulose-1,5-biphosphate oxygenase activity.-Biochem. biophys. Res. Commun. 279: 512-515, 2000. Go to original source...
    87. Szabolcs, J.: Soils and salinization.-In: Pessarakli, M. (ed.): Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress. Pp. 3-11. Marcel Dekker, New York 1994.
    88. Takabe, T. Incharoensakdi, A., Arakawa, K., Yokota, S.: CO2 fixation rate and RuBisCO increase in the halotolerant cyanobacterium, Aphanothece halophytica, grown in high salinities.-Plant Physiol. 88: 1120-1124, 1988. Go to original source...
    89. Tiwari, B.S., Bose, A., Ghosh, B.: Photosynthesis in rice under a salt stress.-Photosynthetica 34: 303-306, 1997. Go to original source...
    90. Trebst, A.: Energy conservation in photosynthetic electron transport of chloroplasts.-Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 25: 423-458, 1974. Go to original source...
    91. Van Thor, J.J., Jeanjean, R., Havaux, M., Sjollema, K.A., Joset, F., Hellingwerf, K.J., Matthijs, H.C.: Salt shock-inducible photosystem I cyclic electron transfer in Synechocystis PCC6803 relies on binding of ferredoxin:NADP+ reductase to the thylakoid membranes via its CpcD phycobilisome-linker homologous N-terminal domain.-Biochim. biophys. Acta 1457: 129-144, 2000. Go to original source...
    92. Verma, K., Mohanty, P.: Changes of the photosythetic apparatus in Spirulina cyanobacterium by sodium stress.-Z. Naturforsch. 55C: 16-22, 2000a. Go to original source...
    93. Verma, K., Mohanty, P.: Alterations in the structure of phycobilisomes of the cyanobacterium, Spirulina platensis in response to enhanced Na+ level.-World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 16: 795-798, 2000b. Go to original source...
    94. Vonshak, A., Chanawongse, L., Bunnag, B., Tanticharoen, M.: Physiological characterization of Spirulina platensis isolates: response to light and salinity.-Plant Physiol. 14: 161-166, 1995.
    95. Vonshak, A., Guy, R., Guy, M.: The response of the filamentous cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis to salt stress.-Arch. Microbiol. 150: 417-420, 1988. Go to original source...
    96. Zeng, M.T., Vonshak, A.: Adaptation of Spirulina platensis to salinity stress.-Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 120: 113-118, 1998. Go to original source...
    97. Zhao, J., Brand, J.J.: Sequential effects of sodium depletion on photosystem II in Synechocystis.-Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 264: 657-664, 1988. Go to original source...
    98. Zhao, J., Brand, J.J.: Sequential events in the photoinhibition of Synechocystis under sodium stress.-Plant Physiol. 91: 91-100, 1989. Go to original source...

    Return to the content